Green Energy in the US

Content

• Green Energy in the US
• Executive Summary xii
• Market development xii
• Wind power xiii
• Solar power xiv
• Hydropower xv
• Geothermal power xvi
• Biopower xvii
• Ocean power xviii
• Outlook xix
• Abbreviations xx
• Chapter 1 Market development 24
  • Summary 24
  • Overview of the US electricity infrastructure 25
  • Generation and installed capacity 25
  • Sectoral distribution of generation 27
  • Sales, revenue, and average retail price 27
  • Overview of renewable energy in the US 28
  • Background 28
  • Installed capacity and growth of renewables 29
  • Drivers of renewable energy 31
  • Production tax credit (PTC) 31
  • State level Renewable energy Portfolio Standards (RPS) 32
  • Growing public support for action on climate change 35
  • Increasing political will to address climate change 36
  • Increasing corporate activism 37
  • Increasing investments 37
  • Resistors of renewable energy 38
  • Failure to price carbon dioxide emissions 38
  • Licensing and permitting issues 38
  • Environmental issues 38
  • Discontinuity in PTC 39
  • Transmission issues 40
  • Comparative economics 40
  • Global comparison 41
• Chapter 2 Wind power 44
  • Summary 44
  • Overview 45
  • Current scenario 45
  • Installed capacity and generation 46
  • Global comparison 47
  • State level analysis 48
  • Key players 50
  • Economics 51
  • Drivers of wind power 53
  • Continuity in PTC 53
  • Strong public and political support 53
  • Increasing economic competitiveness of wind power 53
  • Resistors of wind power 55
  • Lack of continuity in the PTC 55
  • Environmental issues 56
  • Transmission constraints and costs 56
  • Constraints in the supply of turbines 57
  • Wind power potential and outlook 58
  • Wind Power Potential 58
  • Outlook for wind power 59
• Chapter 3 Solar power 62
  • Summary 62
  • Overview 63
  • Current scenario 64
  • Installed capacity and generation 64
  • Global comparison 65
  • State level analysis 66
  • Key players 68
  • Economics 69
  • Drivers of solar power 71
  • The Federal Investment Tax Credit 71
  • The "President's Solar America Initiative" 72
  • California Solar Initiative 72
  • Increasing corporate interest in solar power 73
  • Increased VC funding in solar power 73
  • State level RPS Targets 73
  • Resistors of solar power 74
  • Shortage of silicon 74
  • High cost 74
  • Solar power potential and outlook 75
  • Solar power potential 75
  • Outlook for solar power 76
• Chapter 4 Hydropower 80
  • Summary 80
  • Overview 81
  • Current scenario 81
  • Installed capacity and generation 81
  • Global comparison 84
  • State level analysis 85
  • Key players 87
  • Economics 88
  • Drivers of hydropower 89
  • Licensing reforms 89
  • Inclusion of incremental hydropower under PTC 89
  • The DOE Hydropower Program 90
  • Resistors of hydropower 91
  • Licensing issues due to environmental concerns 91
  • Capital intensive but lacking incentives 92
  • Hydropower potential and outlook 92
  • Hydropower potential 92
  • Outlook for hydropower 93
• Chapter 5 Geothermal power 96
  • Summary 96
  • Overview 97
  • Current scenario 97
  • Installed capacity and generation 97
  • Global comparison 99
  • State level analysis 99
  • Key players 101
  • Economics 102
  • Drivers of geothermal power 103
  • Introduction of PTC for geothermal 103
  • DOE's Geothermal Technologies Program 104
  • Geothermal Resource Exploration and Development Program 104
  • Increased environmental concerns 105
  • Resistors of geothermal power 105
  • Short time horizon for PTC 105
  • Leasing issues 105
  • Cost constraints and transmission issues 106
  • Scant research funding 107
  • Geothermal power potential and outlook 108
  • Geothermal power potential 108
  • Outlook for geothermal power 111
• Chapter 6 Biopower 114
  • Summary 114
  • Overview 115
  • Current scenario 115
  • Installed capacity and generation 115
  • Global comparison 117
  • Key players 117
  • Economics 118
  • Drivers of biopower 120
  • Attractive economics of co-firing 120
  • Environmentally friendly power generaton 120
  • Employment generation 121
  • DOE biopower program 121
  • Resistors of biopower 122
  • Lack of subsidies or any strong incentive program 122
  • Cost constraints 122
  • Constraints in the supply of raw material 122
  • Biopower potential and outlook 123
  • Biopower potential 123
  • Outlook for biopower 124
• Chapter 7 Ocean power 128
  • Summary 128
  • Overview 129
  • Current scenario 129
  • Global comparison 131
  • Key players 131
  • Economics 132
  • Drivers of ocean power 133
  • Energy Policy Act of 2005 133
  • State and city government initiatives 134
  • Private investments 134
  • Resistors of ocean power 135
  • Lack of federal support 135
  • Siting and leasing issues 135
  • Cost constraints 135
  • Ocean power potential and outlook 136
  • Ocean power potential 136
  • Outlook for ocean power 137
• Chapter 8 Future outlook 140
  • Summary 140
  • Outlook for the US electricity sector 141
  • Outlook for renewables 144
  • EIA outlook 145
  • Alternative scenarios 149
  • Abbreviations 151
  • Index 153
• List of Figures
  • Figure 1.1: Net generation shares by energy source, 2006 25
  • Figure 1.2: US electric power industry, net summer capacity, 2005 26
  • Figure 1.3: Net generation shares by sector, 2006 27
  • Figure 1.4: Crude oil spot prices, 1982-2006 29
  • Figure 1.5: Net generation by energy source, 2006 30
  • Figure 1.6: CAGR (2001-2005) of various energy sources in the US 31
  • Figure 1.7: RPS map as of April, 2007 34
  • Figure 1.8: Media coverage about climate change 35
  • Figure 1.9: Global comparison in terms of installed capacity, 2005 41
  • Figure 2.10: Cumulative installed capacity (MW) 46
  • Figure 2.11: Top 5 countries by cumulative installed capacity (MW), December 2006 47
  • Figure 2.12: Top 5 countries by new installed capacity (MW), December 2006 48
  • Figure 2.13: Leading states by cumulative capacity as of December 2006 48
  • Figure 2.14: Cumulative installed capacity (MW) of states, December 2006 49
  • Figure 2.15: Turbine manufacturer market shares in the US (2005) 51
  • Figure 2.16: Average cost/kWh of wind-generated electricity 52
  • Figure 2.17: Impact of PTC on wind power capacity additions 55
  • Figure 2.18: Wind resource map for the US 58
  • Figure 3.19: Cumulative installed capacity (MW) 64
  • Figure 3.20: Top 3 countries by cumulative installed solar capacity (MW) 65
  • Figure 3.21: Key markets by new installed solar capacity (MW), December 2006 66
  • Figure 3.22: US PV market 2005 67
  • Figure 3.23: Solar set-asides of states 68
  • Figure 3.24: Solar PV manufacturers' market shares in US (2004) 69
  • Figure 3.25: Technology cost reduction goals for residential PV systems 71
  • Figure 3.26: Solar resource map for the US 76
  • Figure 3.27: Forecasts for installed capacity and costs 77
  • Figure 4.28: Cumulative installed capacity (MW) 82
  • Figure 4.29: Net generation (bn kWh) 83
  • Figure 4.30: Total average electric power from hydroelectric plants 83
  • Figure 4.31: Top 5 countries by hydroelectric consumption, 2005 84
  • Figure 4.32: Leading states by cumulative capacity as of December 2005 85
  • Figure 4.33: State ranking and percentage of total electric power generation in the US 86
  • Figure 4.34: Ownership of hydroelectric plants in the US 87
  • Figure 4.35: DOE Hydropower Program 90
  • Figure 4.36: Feasible project hydropower potential 93
  • Figure 4.37: Generation, hydropower vs. other renewables, 1990-2030 94
  • Figure 5.38: Cumulative installed capacity (MW) 98
  • Figure 5.39: Top 5 countries by cumulative installed capacity (MW), December 2005 99
  • Figure 5.40: Leading states by cumulative capacity 2006 100
  • Figure 5.41: Geothermal existing plant locations 101
  • Figure 5.42: Geothermal resource map for the US 108
  • Figure 5.43: Geothermal potential by 2025 109
  • Figure 5.44: Estimated earth temperature at 6 .5 km depth 110
  • Figure 6.45: Cumulative installed capacity (MW) and Net generation (kWh) 116
  • Figure 6.46: Biopower generation market shares in the US (2005) 117
  • Figure 6.47: Cost of electricity: biomass gasification combined-cycle 119
  • Figure 6.48: Biopower capacity projections, 2000-2020 123
  • Figure 6.49: Biomass resources US 124
  • Figure 6.50: Nonhydroelectric renewable electricity generation by energy source, 2004-2030 125
  • Figure 7.51: Ocean energy resource map for the US 137
  • Figure 8.52: Electricity sales by sector, 1980-2030 141
  • Figure 8.53: Net Generation by Energy Source, 2005-2030 142
  • Figure 8.54: Electricity generation capacity additions by fuel type, 2006-2030 143
  • Figure 8.55: Outlook to 2030, Reference case scenario 146
  • Figure 8.56: Generation, Hydropower vs. other renewables, 1990-2030 147
• List of Tables
  • Table 1.1: Cost parameters of electricity sources 40
  • Table 2.2: Largest wind farms operating in the US, as of December, 2006 50
  • Table 2. 3: Top 10 states for wind energy potential in the US 59
  • Table 3. 4: Federal tax credits in the US 71
  • Table 4.5: Largest hydroelectricity dams in the US 86
  • Table 4.6: Costs parameters of hydro technologies 88
  • Table 4.7: Costs parameters of hydro technologies 88
  • Table 5.8: Largest geothermal projects operating in the US 100
  • Table 5. 9: Cost parameters of a geothermal power plant 102
  • Table 5. 10: Top 10 states for geothermal energy potential in the US 111
  • Table 5. 11: Developing projects by state, as of November 2006 112
  • Table 7. 12: Projects in progress for wave energy as of June, 2006 130
  • Table 7. 13: Projects in progress for tidal energy as of June, 2006 130
  • Table 7. 14: Capital cost of wave energy power plants 133
  • Table 8. 15: Renewable energy generation, GWh, Reference Case 148