RNAi

Technologies, Markets and Companies

Publication Date	October 2009
Publisher	Jain PharmaBiotech
Product Type	Report
Pages	451
ISBN Number	not applicable
Product Code	JAI00040

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Summary

RNA interference (RNAi) or gene silencing involves the use of double stranded RNA (dsRNA). Once inside the cell, this material is processed into short 21-23 nucleotide RNAs termed siRNAs that are used in a sequence-specific manner to recognize and destroy complementary RNA. The report compares RNAi with other antisense approaches using oligonucleotides, aptamers, ribozymes, peptide nucleic acid and locked nucleic acid.

Various RNAi technologies are described, along with design and methods of manufacture of siRNA reagents. These include chemical synthesis by in vitro transcription and use of plasmid or viral vectors. Other approaches to RNAi include DNA-directed RNAi (ddRNAi) that is used to produce dsRNA inside the cell, which is cleaved into siRNA by the action of Dicer, a specific type of RNAse III. MicroRNAs are derived by processing of short hairpins that can inhibit the mRNAs. Expressed interfering RNA (eiRNA) is used to express dsRNA intracellularly from DNA plasmids.

Delivery of therapeutics to the target tissues is an important consideration. siRNAs can be delivered to cells in culture by electroporation or by transfection using plasmid or viral vectors. In vivo delivery of siRNAs can be carried out by injection into tissues or blood vessels or use of synthetic and viral vectors.

Because of its ability to silence any gene once the sequence is known, RNAi has been adopted as the research tool to discriminate gene function. After the genome of an organism is sequenced, RNAi can be designed to target every gene in the genome and target for specific phenotypes. Several methods of gene expression analysis are available and there is still need for sensitive methods of detection of gene expression as a baseline and measurement after gene silencing. RNAi microarray has been devised and can be tailored to meet the needs for high throughput screens for identifying appropriate RNAi probes. RNAi is an important method for analyzing gene function and identifying new drug targets that uses double-stranded RNA to knock down or silence specific genes. With the advent of vector-mediated siRNA delivery methods it is now possible to make transgenic animals that can silence gene expression stably. These technologies point to the usefulness of RNAi for drug discovery.

RNAi can be rationally designed to block the expression of any target gene, including genes for which traditional small molecule inhibitors cannot be found. Areas of therapeutic applications include virus infections, cancer, genetic disorders and neurological diseases. Side effects can result from unintended interaction between an siRNA compound and an unrelated host gene. If RNAi compounds are designed poorly, there is an increased chance for non-specific interaction with host genes that may cause adverse effects in the host.

Regulatory, safety and patent issues are discussed. There are no major safety concerns and regulations are in preliminary stages as the clinical trials are just starting. Many of the patents are still pending.

The markets for RNAi are difficult to define as no RNAi-based product is approved yet but several are in clinical trials. The major use of RNAi reagents is in research but it partially overlaps that of drug discovery and therapeutic development. Various markets relevant to RNAi are analyzed from 2008 to 2018. Markets are also analyzed according to breakdown of technologies and use of siRNAs, miRNAs, etc.

Profiles of 155 companies involved in developing RNAi technologies are presented along with 203 collaborations. They are a mix of companies that supply reagents and technologies (nearly half of all) and companies that use the technologies for drug discovery. Out of these, 30 are developing RNAi-based therapeutics and 25 are involved in microRNAs. The bibliography contains selected 500 publications that are cited in the report. The text is supplemented with 32 tables and 10 figures.

Content

0 Executive Summary
1 Technologies for suppressing gene function
- Introduction
  - DNA transcription
  - RNA
    - Non-coding RNA
    - RNA research and potential applications
    - Role of RNA in regulation of the dihydrofolate reductase gene
  - Gene regulation
  - Post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression
  - Alternative RNA splicing
- Technologies for gene suppression
  - Antisense oligonucleotides
  - Transcription factor decoys
  - Aptamers
  - Ribozymes
  - Aptazymes
  - RNA aptamers vs allosteric ribozymes
  - RNA Lasso
  - Peptide nucleic acid
  - PNA-DNA chimeras
  - Locked nucleic acid
  - Gene silencing
  - Post-transcriptional gene silencing
  - TargeTron™ technology for gene knockout
- Definitions and terminology of RNAi
- RNAi mechanisms
- Non-promoter-associated small RNAs
- Piwi-interacting RNAs in germ cell development
- Relation of RNAi to junk DNA
- RNA editing and RNAi
- Historical landmarks in the development of RNAi
2 RNAi Technologies
- Introduction
- Comparison of antisense and RNAi
  - Advantages of antisense over siRNAs
  - Advantages of siRNAs over antisense
  - RNA aptamers vs siRNA
  - RNA Lassos versus siRNA
  - Concluding remarks on antisense vs RNAi
- Antisense vs DNP-ssRNA and DNP-siRNA
- LNA and RNAi
  - LNA for gene suppression
  - Comparison of LNA and RNAi
  - Use of siLNA to improve siRNA
- RNAi versus small molecules
- RNAi in vivo
  - Cre-regulated RNAi in vivo
- RNAi kits
  - ShortCut™ RNAi Kit
  - HiScribe™ RNAi Transcription Kit
  - pSUPER RNAi system
  - Si2 Silencing Duplex
- Techniques for measuring RNAi-induced gene silencing
  - Application of PCR in RNAi
    - Real-time quantitative PCR
    - Assessment of the silencing effect of siRNA by RT-PCR
- Bioinformatics tools for design of siRNAs
  - Random siRNA design
  - Rational siRNA design
    - The concept of pooling siRNAs
    - Criteria for rational siRNA design
    - BLOCK-iT RNAi Designer
    - QIAGEN's 2-for-Silencing siRNA Duplexes
    - Designing vector-based siRNA
    - iRNAChek for designing siRNA
    - TROD: T7 RNAi Oligo Designer
    - siDirect: siRNA design software
  - Prediction of efficacy of siRNAs
    - Algorithms for prediction of siRNA efficacy
    - siRNA databases
- Production of siRNAs
  - Chemical synthesis of short oligonucleotides
  - In vitro transcription
  - Generation of siRNA in vivo
  - siRNA:DNA hybrid molecules
  - Chemical modifications of siRNAs
    - Sugar modifications of siRNA
    - Phosphate linkage modifications of siRNA
    - Modifications to the siRNA overhangs
    - Modifications to the duplex architecture
    - Applications of chemical modification of siRNAs
  - Synthetic RNAs vs siRNAs
- Specificity of siRNAs
- Asymmetric interfering RNA
- Genome-wide data sets for the production of esiRNAs
- ddRNAi for inducing RNAi
  - ddRNAi technology
  - Advantages of ddRNAi over siRNA
- Short hairpin RNAs
  - siRNA versus shRNA
- Expressed interfering RNA
- RNA-induced transcriptional silencing complex
- Inhibition of gene expression by antigene RNA
- RNAi vs mRNA modulation by small molecular weight compounds
3 MicroRNA
- Introduction
- miRNA and RISC
- Role of the microprocessor complex in miRNA
- miRNAs compared to siRNAs
- miRNA and stem cells
  - Influence of miRNA on stem cell formation and maintenance
  - Role of miRNAs in gene regulation during stem cell differentiation
- miRNA databases
  - Sanger miRBase miRNA sequence database
  - Mapping miRNA genes
  - A database of ultraconserved sequences and miRNA function
  - A database for miRNA deregulation in human disease
  - An database of miRNA-target interactions
- Role of miRNA in gene regulation
  - Control of gene expression by miRNA
    - miRNA-mediated translational repression involving Piwi
    - Transcriptional regulators of ESCs control of miRNA gene expression
  - Mechanism of miRNAs-induced silencing of gene expression
- miRNA diagnostics
  - Biochemical approach to identification of miRNA
  - Computational approaches for the identification of miRNAs
  - LNA probes for exploring miRNA
  - Microarrays for analysis of miRNA gene expression
    - Microarrays vs quantitative PCR for measuring miRNAs
  - miRNAs as biomarkers of hepatotoxicity
  - Modification of in situ hybridization for detection of miRNAs
  - Nuclease Protection Assay to measure miRNA expression
  - Real-time PCR for expression profiling of miRNAs
- Targeting of miRNAs with antisense oligonucleotides
  - Silencing miRNAs by antagomirs
- miRNA-regulated lentiviral vectors
- miRNAs as drug targets
  - miRNAs as targets for antisense drugs
  - Challenges facing use of miRNAs as drug targets
  - Target specificity of miRNAs
  - Prediction of miRNA targets
- Role of miRNA in human health and disease
  - Role of miRNAs in regulation of hematopoiesis
  - Role of miRNA depletion in tissue regeneration
  - Role of miRNA in regulation of aging
  - Role of miRNA in inflammation
  - Role of miRNAs in regulation of immune system
- Role of miRNA in the cardiovascular system
  - Role of miRNAs in development of the cardiovascular system
  - Role of miRNAs in angiogenesis
  - Role of miRNAs in cardiac hypertrophy and failure
  - Role of miRNAs in conduction and rhythm disorders of the heart
  - miRNA-based approach for reduction of hypercholesterolemia
  - miRNA-based approach for restenosis following angioplasty
  - miRNAs as therapeutic targets for cardiovascular diseases
  - Concluding remarks and future prospects of miRNA in the cardiovascular system
- Role of miRNAs in the nervous system
  - miRNAs as biomarkers of Alzheimer's disease
  - miRNA and schizophrenia
  - miRNAs and retinal neurodegenerative disorders
- Role of miRNA in viral infections
  - Role of miRNA in HSV-1 latency
- miRNA and autoimmune disorders
  - miRNA in systemic lupus erythematosus
- miRNA and skin disorders
  - Role of miRNA in inflammatory skin disorders
- Role of miRNAs in cancer
  - Linking miRNA sequences to cancer using RNA samples
  - Role of miRNAs in viral oncogenesis
  - miRNA genes in cancer
  - miRNAs, embryonic stem cells and cancer
  - miRNAs and cancer metastases
  - Role of miRNAs in cancer diagnosis
    - Cancer miRNA signature
    - miRNA biomarkers in cancer
    - Diagnostic value of miRNA in cancer
  - miRNAs as basis of cancer therapeutics
    - Antisense oligonucleotides targeted to miRNA
    - Role of miRNAs in adoptive immunotherapy of cancer
  - Role of miRNAs in various cancers
    - miRNA and brain cancer
    - miRNA and breast cancer
    - miRNA and colorectal cancer
    - miRNA and hematological malignancies
    - miRNA and hepatocellular carcinoma
    - miRNA and lung cancer
    - miRNA and nasopharyngeal carcinoma
    - miRNA and ovarian cancer
    - miRNA and pancreatic cancer
    - miRNA and prostatic cancer
    - miRNA and thyroid cancer
- Future prospects of miRNA
- Companies involved in miRNA
4 Methods of delivery in RNAi
- Introduction
- Methods of delivery of oligonucleotides
  - Oral and rectal administration
  - Pulmonary administration
  - Targeted delivery to the CNS
    - High flow microinfusion into the brain parenchyma
  - Intracellular guidance by special techniques
  - Biochemical microinjection
  - Liposomes-mediated oligonucleotide delivery
  - Polyethylenimine-mediated oligonucleotide delivery
  - Delivery of TF Decoys
  - Biodegradable microparticles
    - Microparticles
    - Nanoparticles
- siRNA delivery technologies
  - Local delivery of siRNA
  - In vivo delivery of siRNAs by synthetic vectors
  - Intracellular delivery of siRNAs
    - Protamine-antibody fusion proteins for delivery of siRNA to cells
    - Protein transduction domains
    - MPG-based delivery of siRNA
    - Delivery of siRNAs with aptamer-siRNA chimeras
    - Phosphorothioate stimulated cellular delivery of siRNA
  - Targeted delivery of siRNAs by lipid-based technologies
    - Systemic in vivo delivery of lipophilic siRNAs
    - NeoLipid™ technology
    - siFECTamine™
    - Delivery of siRNA-lipoplexes
    - Lipidoids for delivery of siRNAs
  - Electroporation
    - Nucleofactor technology
  - Intravascular delivery of siRNA
  - 27mer siRNA duplexes for improved delivery and potency
  - TransIT-TKO®
  - DNA-based plasmids for delivery of siRNA
    - Convergent transcription
  - PCR cassettes expressing siRNAs
  - Genetically engineered bacteria for delivery of shRNA
  - Viral vectors for delivery of siRNA
    - Adenoviral vectors
    - Adeno-associated virus vectors for shRNA expression
    - Baculovirus vector
    - Lentiviral vectors
    - Retroviral delivery of siRNA
  - Transkingdom RNAi delivery by genetically engineered bacteria
  - Delivery of siRNA without a vector
  - Cell-penetrating peptides for delivery of siRNAs
  - Role of nanobiotechnology in siRNA delivery
    - Chitosan-coated nanoparticles for siRNA delivery
    - Delivery of gold nanorod-siRNA nanoplex to dopaminergic neurons
    - Lipidic aminoglycoside as siRNA nanocarrier
    - Lipid nanoparticles-mediated siRNA delivery
    - Nanosize liposomes for delivery of siRNA
    - PAMAM dendrimers for siRNA delivery
    - Polyethylenimine nanoparticles for siRNA delivery
    - Polycation-based nanoparticles for siRNA delivery
    - Quantum dots to monitor siRNA delivery
  - Targeted delivery of siRNAs to specific organs
    - siRNA delivery to the CNS
    - siRNA delivery to the liver
    - siRNAdelivery to the lungs
- Control of RNAi and siRNA levels
- siRNA pharmacokinetics in mammalian cells
  - Mathematical modeling for determining the dosing schedule of siRNA
- Assessing siRNA pharmacodynamics in animal models
- Research on siRNA delivery funded by the NIH
- Companies involved in delivery technologies for siRNA
5 RNAi in Research
- Introduction
  - Basic RNAi research
    - Genes and lifespan
    - Antiviral role of RNAi in animal cells
    - Silencing snoRNA genes
    - Profiling small RNAs
    - Study of signaling pathways
    - RNAi for research in neuroscience
    - Use of RNAi to study insulin action
    - Detection of cancer mutations
    - Loss-of-function genetic screens
    - Inducible and reversible RNAi
    - Combination of siRNA with green fluorescent protein
    - RNAi and environmental research
- Applied RNAi research
  - RNAi for gene expression studies
  - Microarrays for measuring gene expression in RNAi
  - RNAi for functional genomic analysis
    - RNAi studies on C. elegans
    - RNAi studies on Drosophila
    - RNAi in planaria
  - Testing the specificity of RNAi
  - Tissue-specific RNAi
  - siRNA-mediated gene silencing
  - RNAi libraries
    - Universal plasmid siRNA library
    - pDual library using plasmid vector
    - pHippy plasmid vector library
    - siRNA libary including miRNAs
    - siRNA libraries using pRetroSuper vector
    - siRNA produced by enzymatic engineering of DNA
    - shRNA libraries
    - Enzymatic production of RNAi library
  - RNAi and alternative splicing
  - RNAi in animal development
    - RNAi for creating transgenic animals
    - RNAi for creating models of neurological disorders
- Research support for RNAi in US
  - RNAi for toxicogenomics
  - Role of RNAi in the US biodefense research
  - The RNAi Consortium
- Research support for RNAi in Europe
  - European Union for RNA Interference Technology
  - Research support of RNAi
  - Role of RNAi in MitoCheck project
- Genome-Wide RNAi Global Initiative
6 RNAi in drug discovery
- - Basis of RNAi for drug discovery
  - Use of siRNA libraries to identify genes as therapeutic targets
    - Role of siRNAs in drug target identification
    - Use of a genome-wide, siRNA library for drug discovery
    - Use of arrayed adenoviral siRNA libraries for drug discovery
  - RNAi as a tool for assay development
  - Targeting human kinases with an siRNAi library
  - Challenges of drug discovery with RNAi
  - Express Track SM siRNA Drug Discovery Program
  - Genome-wide siRNA screens in mammalian cells
  - Natural antisense and ncRNA as drug targets
  - RNAi for target validation
    - Delivering siRNA for target validation in vivo
    - Off-target effects of siRNA-mediated gene silencing
    - Bioinformatic approach to off-target effects
    - Validation of oncology targets discovered through RNAi screens
    - Selection of siRNA versus shRNA for target validation
  - Application of RNAi to the druggable genome
  - Application of siRNA during preclinical drug development
  - siRNAs vs small molecules as drugs
  - siRNAs vs antisense drugs
  - RNAi technology in plants for drug discovery and development
    - Application of RNAi to poppy plant as source of new drugs
7 Therapeutic applications of RNAi
- Introduction
- Potential of RNAi-based therapies
- In vitro applications of siRNA
- In vivo applications of RNAi
- RNAi and cell therapy
  - Gene inactivation to study hESCs
  - RNAi and stem cells
  - Cell therapy for immune disorders
- RNAi gene therapy
  - Drug-inducible systems for control of gene expression
  - Potential side effects of RNAi gene therapy
  - Systemic delivery of siRNAs
  - In vivo RNAi therapeutic efficacy in animal models of human diseases
- Virus infections
  - RNAi approaches to viral infections
    - Delivery of siRNAs in viral infections
  - RNAi applications in HIV
    - Anti-HIV shRNA for AIDS lymphoma
    - Aptamer-mediated delivery of anti-HIV siRNAs
    - Bispecific siRNA constructs
    - Role of the nef gene during HIV-1 infection and RNAi
    - siRNA-directed inhibition of HIV-1 infection
    - Synergistic effect of snRNA and siRNA
    - Targeting CXCR4 with siRNAs
    - Targeting CCR5 with siRNAs
    - Concluding remarks on RNAi approach to HIV/AIDS
  - Influenza
    - Inhibition of influenza virus by siRNAs
    - Delivery of siRNA in influenza
    - Challenges and future prospects of siRNAs for influenza
  - Respiratory syncytial and parainfluenza viruses
  - Coronavirus/severe acute respiratory syndrome
  - Herpes simplex virus 2
  - Hepatitis B
  - Hepatitis C virus
  - Cytomegalovirus
  - siRNA vs antisense oligonucleotides for viral infections
- S. aureus
- RNAi-based rational approach to antimalarial drug discovery
  - Inhibiting the growth of malarial parasite by heme-binding DNA aptamers
  - siRNA-based antimalarial therapeutics
- RNAi applications in oncology
  - Inhibition of oncogenes
  - RNAi approach to study TRAIL
  - Modification of alternative splicing in cancer
  - Allele-specific inhibition
  - siRNAs for anticancer drug discovery
  - siRNAs for inhibition of angiogenesis
  - siRNA targeting the R2 subunit of ribonucleotide reductase
  - siRNA for cancer chemoprevention
  - Onconase
  - Drug delivery issues in managing cancer by RNAi approach
  - siHybrids vs siRNAs as anticancer agents
  - Nanobiotechnology-based delivery of siRNAs
    - Lipid nanoparticle-based delivery of anticancer siRNAs
    - Minicells for targeted delivery of nanoscale anticancer therapeutics
    - Nanoimmunoliposome-based system for targeted delivery of siRNA
    - Polymer nanoparticles for targeted delivery of anticancer siRNA
    - RNA nanotechnology for delivery of cancer therapeutics
  - RNAi-based treatment of various cancer types
    - RNAi-based therapy of brain cancer
    - RNAi in breast cancer
    - Enhancing efficacy of hyperthermia/chemotherapy in cervical cancer
    - RNAi and colorectal cancer
    - RNAi and Ewing's sarcoma
    - RNAi and leukemias
    - RNAi and lung cancer
    - RNAi and melanoma
    - RNAi and pancreatic cancer
    - RNAi and prostate cancer
  - Overcoming drug resistance in cancer
    - Targeting fusion proteins in cancer
    - Increasing chemosensitivity by RNAi
- Genetic disorders
  - Pachyonychia congenita
- Neurological disorders
  - RNAi for neurodegenerative disorders
    - Alzheimer's disease
    - Parkinson's disease
    - Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
    - Prion diseases
  - Polyglutamine-induced neurodegeneration
    - Fragile X syndrome and RNAi
    - RNAi-based therapy for Huntington's disease
  - Combination of RNAi and gene therapy to prevent neurodegenerative disease
  - siRNA for relief of neuropathic pain
  - siRNA for dystonia
  - Role of RNAi in repair of spinal cord injury
  - Role of RNAi in treatment of multiple sclerosis
  - siRNA for Duchenne muscular dystrophy
- RNAi in ophthalmology
  - Age related macular degeneration
    - Current treatment of AMD
    - RNAi-based treatments for AMD
  - Diabetic retinopathy
  - Retinitis pigmentosa
- RNAi and metabolic disorders
  - RNAi and obesity
    - Genes and regulation of body fat
  - RNAi and diabetes
    - Use of siRNAs to study glucose transporter
    - Use of RNAi to study genes in animal models of diabetes
    - RNAi for drug discovery in diabetes
    - A miRNA that regulates insulin secretion
- RNAi in hematology
  - Stem cell-based gene therapy and RNAi for sickle cell disease
- RNAi and disorders of the immune system
  - siRNA applications in immunology
  - Use of RNAi in transplantation
- RNAi for cardiovascular disorders
  - RNAi for hypercholesterolemia
  - siRNA targeting NADPH oxidase in cardiovascular diseases
- siRNA for study and treatment of ischemia-reperfusion injury
- RNAi in respiratory disorders
  - siRNA for cystic fibrosis
  - siRNA for asthma
- RNAi for musculoskeletal disorders
  - RNAi for rheumatoid arthritis
  - RNAi for bone disorders
- Future prospects of RNAi
  - Clinical trials of RNAi-based therapies
  - Improving efficacy of siRNAs for clinical trials by improved delivery
  - Role of RNAi in development of personalized medicine
  - Challenges for the development of RNAi-based therapeutics
8 Safety, regulatory and patent issues
- Introduction
- Limitations and drawbacks of RNAi
- Adverse effects of RNAi
  - Effect of siRNAs on interferon response
  - Detection of interferon response
  - Prevention of the interferon response in RNAi
  - Overcoming the innate immune response to siRNAs
- Regulatory issues relevant to RNAi
- RNAi patents
  - Companies with strong patent position
    - Alnylam
    - Benitec
    - Intradigm
    - Sirna Therapeutics
9 Markets for RNAi Technologies
- Introduction
- Current and future market potential for RNAi technologies
  - RNAi reagents
  - RNAi-based drug discovery and target validation
  - RNAi-based development of therapeutics
- RNAi market potential according to therapeutic areas
  - Market for viral infections
  - Market for cancer
  - Market for age related macular degeneration
- Unmet needs in RNAi
- Strategies for marketing RNAi
  - Choosing optimal indications
  - Strategies according to the trends in healthcare in the next decade
- Concluding remarks
10 Companies involved in RNAi Technologies
- Introduction
- Major players in RNAi
- Profiles of companies
- Collaborations
11 References
Tables
- Table 1-1: Historical landmarks in the evolution of RNAi
- Table 2-1: RNAi versus small molecules
- Table 2-2: Providers of software for siRNA design
- Table 2-3: Methods for the production of siRNAs
- Table 2-4: Advantages and limitations of methods of shRNA-derived siRNA knockdown
- Table 2-5: Comparison of eiRNA with siRNA
- Table 3-1: Methods for miRNA target prediction
- Table 3-2: Dysregulation of miRNA expression in epithelial cancers
- Table 3-3: Companies involved in miRNA diagnostics and therapeutics
- Table 4-1: Methods of delivery of oligonucleotides
- Table 4-2: Methods of delivery of siRNA
- Table 4-3: Companies developing siRNA delivery technologies
- Table 5-1: RNAi libraries
- Table 6-1: Delivery of siRNAs in vivo for target validation
- Table 6-2: Selection of siRNA versus shRNA for target validation
- Table 7-1: RNAi-based therapeutic approaches
- Table 7-2: In vivo RNAi therapeutic efficacy in animal models of human diseases
- Table 7-3: Inhibition of viral replication by RNAi
- Table 7-4: Cancer-associated genes that can be targeted by RNAi
- Table 7-5: Neurological disorders that have been studied by using RNAi
- Table 7-6: Clinical trials of RNAi-based therapeutics
- Table 9-1: RNAi markets according to technologies and reagents 2008-2018
- Table 9-2: Markets for RNAi therapy for selected diseases: years 2008-2018
- Table 10-1: RNAi reagent, technology and service companies
- Table 10-2: Pharmaceutical companies using RNAi for drug discovery and development
- Table 10-3: Biotechnology companies using RNAi for drug discovery and development
- Table 10-4: Companies developing RNAi-based therapeutic products
- Table 10-5: Major players in RNAi
- Table 10-6: RNAi products of Benitec
- Table 10-7: Proprietary reagents of ImuThes
- Table 10-8: Product pipeline of Silence Therapeutics
- Table 10-9: Collaborations in RNAi technologies
Figures
- Figure 1-1: Relationship of DNA, RNA and protein in the cell
- Figure 1-2: Schematic of suppression of gene expression by RNAi
- Figure 2-1: Overview of ShortCut RNAi Kit
- Figure 2-2: Gene silencing by RNAi induced with ddRNAi
- Figure 3-1: A schematic miRNA pathway
- Figure 3-2: Molecular mechanisms of miRNA generation
- Figure 7-1: Targeting disease by RNAi
- Figure 7-2: Role of RNAi in personalized medicine
- Figure 8-1: Problems with use of synthetic siRNAs and measures to prevent them
- Figure 9-1: Unmet needs in RNAi technologies